Rhetoric Beyond the Mediterranean
I found the page on comparative literature very important to read before jumping into the readings this week, as I never considered the term rhetoric itself to be exclusionary, because it does not account for the different ways other cultures have defined the composition process. Persuasion does not necessarily mean it is rhetoric, just as rhetoric does not encompass all forms of persuasion in other cultures. It is important to avoid intellectual colonization of ideas like these, so as I analyze these texts, I will try to use the word rhetoric only when comparing these works to Greek writers. Some of these ideas may be very similar to rhetoric, but I will not define it by this term to avoid minimizing these works as part of a Western canon rather than its own original discourse. I believe both of the works we analyze this week are unique, as the first seems to break down the composition process, while the second is a persuasion tactic that is relevant in power hierarchies (when one is below another). I’m glad to see a different perspective, because it will open my own perception of writing and all of its capabilities.
Lu Ji was a writer in the late 3rd century during the Third Kingdoms period and the Jin dynasty of China. He had many strong familial connections to imperial royalty and generals/military officials, so he was affluent in society. His work “The Art of Writing” is one of his best known literary criticisms, and it is very apparent that he is also a poet. The format of the piece is in short stanzas and couplets and has lyrical language such as rhymes and metaphors. I love the poetic language personally, because I have never considered blending a topic like technical writing with poetry. His use of nature imagery is also lovely, as he describes the poet at the center of the universe “[s]tudying the four seasons as they pass, he sighs. Seeing the inter-connectedness of things, he knows the many ways of the world. He mourns the leaves torn away by the cruel hands of autumn; he honours the fragrant tender bud of Spring.” This appreciation for the arts is refreshing, especially with the depreciation of areas like creative writing in academia today.
He actually starts the piece by addressing his diligence to studying the composition masters of the past, which is very similar to the way some of the second sophists (such as Quintilian) refer to the old Greek masters for guidance in learning new topics of rhetoric. One of the first main ideas he addresses is the importance of having one’s content align with their style, as he states, “We worry whether our ideas fall short of their subjects, whether the form rhymes with the content.” This is key to understand, and I think plays into the importance of setting as well that the Greeks discussed (high, middle, and low style/ forensic, epideictic, and deliberative). You have to understand your situation, your audience, and the topic in order to write a persuasive piece effectively.
The way he describes the writing process which the writer feels is awe-inspiring, and I believe this is accurate. At least, I feel a certain sense of peace when I write, so his descriptions of cosmic winds and heavenly places is a valid and artistic way at understanding the grand emotions a writer feels creating an excellent piece from their thoughts. The “Satisfaction” section is also a feeling I can relate to as a fellow writer with a passion.
He also explains the importance of having supporting evidence, just as each trembling leaf is connected to a solid branch. I think arguably his most important section is the one titled, “Catalogue of Genres”. He outlines the different ways to write for different scenarios as indicated in his list, “The lyric [shih] articulates the emotions. Rhymed prose [fu] presents its objects clearly. Inscriptions [pei] are written simply. Elegies [lei] contain the tangled webs of grieving and
should be kept mournful. Admonitions [chen] cut against the grain and should be directly written.
The eulogy [sung] praises, but must be kept in balance. A treatise [lun] should be subtle, smooth, & polished.” I think this is a great outline to understanding all of the ways and reasons one may write. Near the end of this section, I also found it fundamental to mention how he brings up the importance of how each piece must “stand opposed to evil.” This relates back to the ideals of Socrates and Quintilian who adhered to the Good Man Theory, which is where they believed you must be a good man with good intentions to make a good piece of composition. These great ideas and compositions also are embodiments and continuations of ideas of the masters before them, and there is no completely original thought.
Instead of the five canons, Ji refers to five criteria which one must consider when writing. These include music, harmony, feeling, restraint, and refinement. Music is about having rhyme or artistic nature to the piece; harmony focuses on implementing beauty and balance; feeling requires grace and authenticity; restraint highlights the importance of not losing yourself to the beauty and refining one’s ideas through conciseness and clarity; refinement is the final element and focuses on the tiny details which garner the character of the piece. All of these characteristics seem to be focused on balancing the logical side of the piece with the beauty, and I believe one must follow these steps in chronological order when editing (which is why refining the piece is last). I loved the way he ended the piece on this pivotal note about the importance of writing, “Through letters there is no road too distant to travel,
no idea too confusing to be ordered.” I just thought that was lovely and something that would look good on a card or at the beginning of a book. It’s just a nice reminder of the importance of words.
On the other hand, we also looked at Han Fei Tzu, who is dated a few centuries before in the Han dynasty (warring states). Similar to Ji, he had many connections to the imperial court, except Tzu was evidently much more powerful than Ji due to his position as a prince of the state of Han. Some of his pieces even appear to be aimed at his cousin, the King of Han. However, he did experience some debates from those who believed in the Confucian ideal of no laws, because he was a legalist and highly regarded statesman. He also struggled to present orally due to a stutter, but this only fueled him into cultivating his writing to be the best it can be.
One of Han Fei’s major works was “The Difficulties of Persuasion”, and it primarily focuses on writing for one’s audience as the main focus to creating a successful argument. You must understand the desires of your audience in order to cultivate one’s argument to fit their agenda (being rich, being virtuous, etc.). He suggests, “Undertakings succeed through secrecy but fail through being found out.” Thus, when one appeals to their audience, they must not give away that they know some of their weaknesses and you must play up their achievements, as Han Fei states one must “learn how to play up the aspects that the person you are talking to is proud of, and play down the aspects he is ashamed of.” It is important to recognize this piece is written to show people how one must speak to a ruler (such as an emperor or king), as he specifies details on how to sway political laws and orders: “If you wish to urge a policy of peaceful coexistence, then be sure to expound it in terms of lofty ideals, but also hint that it is commensurate with the ruler's personal interests. If you wish to warn the ruler against dangerous and injurious policies, then make a show of the fact that they invite reproach and moral censure, but also hint that they are inimical to his personal interests.”
Han Fei’s main goal in writing is to make political change, so it is important that he appeals to his audience to the best of his ability to not only create change, but to avoid harsh consequences. One must be subtle in their pursuits, because it seems that these persuasive pursuits could be considered dangerous if one does not follow restraint (kind of like what Ji argues, as you want to find harmony and restraint in your arguments/writings). He also suggests that one sticks close to the emperor by working under him in some capacity, so as to gain his trust through years of loyalty to the imperial family (I believe the Greeks would consider this building one’s ethos to their target audience). Han Fei utilizes an analogy of a fictional story about a rich family with a son and a neighbor to make this point, which again is very similar to the metaphors used in Ji’s work. To summarize, it is important that one appeals to the emperor at all costs in order to create changes they wish to see.